Essay about Avengers Assemble (Loki and Black Widdow

Jennifer Reed The Avengers Assemble Essay The Avengers Assemble Film (2012), directed by Joss Whedon, is a superhero film which is produced by Marvel Studios. The movie follows 7 iconic Marvel characters, Iron Man (Robert Downey Jr), Dr Bruce Banner aka Hulk (Mark Ruffalo), Thor (Chris Hemsworth), Captain America (Chris Evans), Hawkeye (Jeremy Renner), Black Widow (Scarlett Johansson) and Nick Fury (Samuel L Jackson). All the characters join together on their mission to save the Earth from the villain, Loki (Tom Hiddleston). The film is set on a spaceship. The budget for the film was $220,000,000 and managed to get 1.5 billion box offices. In the essay I will be analysing the scene where Black Widow Interrogates Loki in the Prison.†¦show more content†¦Though when both characters walk backwards and sit down while having their conversation, the power is equal between because of their body posture is at an equal level. The lighting on Widow’s face is shadowed while talking about her past, whereas Loki’s face and body is high lit. This shows that he still may have the upper hand. When he speaks the camera is on him and it is also a long shot which emphasises the prison he is kept in. Compared to the prison, Loki seems very small and lost whilst in it. This puts forward that he is actually not as powerful as he makes out to be, it shows that he is the one really exposed and the lighting all around and on him suggests that all his true colours are being revealed. Through out this section of the scene, their tones of voice are calm and equivalent, so it’s still uncertain who has the power. When Loki questions â€Å"What are you now?† Widow stands up and folds her arms, so her posture is now closed which then directly suggests she now has the power, and is not willing to reveal anymore about herself. Medium close up shot is used on Loki when he reveals something he knows about her. Then it switches to Widow on a close up shot on her face to emphasise her worried and shocke d eye contact whilst Loki is speaking about her secrets. The more he reveals the wider her eyes become to create an impact of fear. Loki then stands up to show that the power has

Essay about Platos Cave How Do We Make Decisions

While you are walking in a park and you come into a fork in the path, how do you know which one to take? How do make the decision of which one to take? Do you make the decision based on the mistakes you made or that you just want to see where it goes? Many of us wants to make the decision so quick that no time is wasted, but others want to look back and see what they have learned and make a decision based on related events. George Shaw once said that â€Å" a life spent making mistakes is not only more honorable but more useful than a life spent doing nothing.† In that quote he meant that it is better to make a mistake other than trying to be perfect all of the time. Through all of the valleys in life you are going to make mistakes but that is†¦show more content†¦We already know that it does not matter which one we chose that both sides has it advantages and disadvantages. Its hard to pick when you know that both sides has an unexpected turn and you may never realize what that will be. When accessing the situation people may never look at the problem but look at what the finish product is going to look like. Growing up is like the situation that people look at a piece of material and makes a finished product out of it. The way they start it and finished it is totally different. It begins by planning, and then makes it. During the building of the product a problem can happen that can throw off the plan or make the product something different. Some may never overcome the situation that keeps them back, but the ones that will be able to seek the rewards of overcoming the problem that they have. I had a situation that had come up in my life that my family and I took a stance at and it has paid off from doing what we thought was the right way of facing the problem. When you access the problem there could be a lot of different scenarios of fixing it, but like putting together a cabinet it has a specific plan of putting it together. It is hard to see others fail while they are doing what they think is best but is that why it is painful. When a plan does not go as plan and the product is not what you want to have is that painful. To many that are consider being painful in the sight ofShow MoreRelatedComparing Chomsky And Plato s Time1686 Words   |  7 Pageslike to compare and contrast people and their environments from Plato’s time with Chomsky’s. During Plato’s time Athens was a democracy, kind of like our times where we are a democratic republic. During Plato’s time most people could not read or write, so information was disseminated orally from top to bottom, in our current society, most people can read and write, however information is still disseminated from top to bottom. In Plato’s world, information was given to you by your political leadersRead MoreEssay about Reality or Illusion955 Words   |  4 PagesMatrix, and Plato’s Republic, â€Å"On Shadows and Realities,?reality a nd illusion are one in the same. The Wachowski brothers allows the viewer to see how reality and illusion can be mistaken for the other, using a number of contrasting ideas found in Platos analogy of the Cave, showing that at times the dream world can be safer than real life. The matrix is a simulation that creates an imaginary world where people are prisoners from reality, much like Platos mythological The Cave. The cave holds prisonersRead MoreEssay on Examining Reality1144 Words   |  5 Pagesnatural to question whether the world we live in is real or not. Neo, the hero, comes to know that the world he lives in is not real thanks to Morpheus. In the future world, the computer rules humans, who are, in turn, born to grow in an incubator. Further, human cerebral nerves are connected to a computer networks, which implies men cannot help living in another incubator till death although they cannot recognize they live in the incubator. Plato’s allegory of the cave is analogous to the story line foundRead MoreAnalysis of Platos Allegory of the Cave948 Words   |  4 PagesPlatos Allegory of the Cave Platos Allegory of the Cave is also termed as the Analogy of the Cave, Platos Cave, or the Parable of the Cave. It was used by the Greek philosopher Plato in his work The Republic to illustrate our nature in its education and want of education. It comprises of a fictional dialogue between Platos teacher Socrates and Platos brother Glaucon. Socrates gives a description of a group of people who spent their lifetime facing a blank wall chained to the wall of a caveRead MoreAllegory Of The Giver By Lois Lowry1436 Words   |  6 Pagestouch base more on the Plato’s themes from the Republic, Book X and The Allegory of The Cave in relation to the Lois Lowry’s The Giver. What I would like to be kept in mind while making our comparison, is my previous commentary on the Allegory of the Cave from prior class discussions on Plato, The Allegory of the Cave shows us to not just stare at the known shadows and be satisfied with it, but to look beyond it to find the truth and real understanding. And Plato’s ideas in regards to artRead MorePlato s Allegory Of The Cave1716 Words   |  7 PagesIn Plato’s, Allegory of the cave, a key theory I found was the importance of education. Plato uses an â€Å"allegory to illustrate the dilemma facing the psyche in the ascent to knowledge of the imperishable and unchanging forms† (104) Based on my research of the republic, the allegory can reveal multiple hidden messages. Plato describes, ordinary mortals are chained within an underground chamber, which according to Fiero, represents the psyche imprisoned within the human body. These mortals can’t lookRead MorePlatos Allegory of the Cave Compared to the Human Condition Essay1025 Words   |  5 PagesThe Allegory Because of how we live, true reality is not obvious to most of us. However, we mistake what we see and hear for reality and truth. This is the basic premise for Platos Allegory of the Cave, in which prisoners sit in a cave, chained down, watching images cast on the wall in front of them. They accept these views as reality and they are unable to grasp their overall situation: the cave and images are a ruse, a mere shadow show orchestrated for them by unseen men. At some point,Read MoreThe Allegory Of The Cave1307 Words   |  6 PagesAllegory of the Cave there are prisoners are chained up together in which they are all facing the back wall. There is a firing behind the prisoners and the only thing that they can see are the shadows of the people behind them. The fire casts shadows on the wall so this is the only thing that they see. Their entire lives have been based on these shadows on the wall. These prisoners have been chained up since birth, so what they see on the walls is a ll they know. In the Allegory of the Cave, they let oneRead MoreEssay on Platos Allegory of the Cave1315 Words   |  6 Pagespath and just do what they felt like doing and do what made them happy as an individual, would they be criticized? In Plato’s Allegory of a Cave he describes an example of people conforming to the norm they were born into and then shows the results of a person emerging from this community into a completely new and different world. People today are trapped into conforming to the American way to avoid being chastised but if we all stand up and make our own decisions based on what we want and our ownRead MorePlatos Moral Theory Essay1747 Words   |  7 PagesWhen Plato’s Republic was introduced in my coursework, I approached this book just like other books that I have read. But the Republic is not written like a typical textbook, but rather, like a living conversation. And like most conversations, it develops important ideas to improve our live s. As you read this book, you notice a main idea that Plato is trying to convey: why a person should bother to be good. But in order to be good, the Republic opens with asking the reader what is justice. Plato

Climate Change and Global Warming

Question: Discuss about the Essay onclimate change and global warming and its impact on the environment ? Answer: Introduction In this project, we will be discussing about climate change and global warming and its impact on the environment. In order to live and survive in this world, proper environment is required to live in. A healthy environment will give a healthy life. Climate is one of the biggest factors for a good healthy environment (Anderson, 2012). For the past few years, climate of different places around the globe is changing rapidly. Climate change can be defined as the statistical administration of weather ornamentation only if that particular change last for a considerable period of time. Climate change can either refer to a sudden change in the usual weather pattern or variation in the time span of a particular climate condition. Climate change can take place due to various reasons like; Difference in solar radiation accepted by the Earth Movement of tectonic plates Volcanic eruption Biotic process Climate is determined basically based on the scale of radiation heat received by the Earth and the amount of heat radiated back to the space (Colligan, 2012). This energy is distributed all around the globe by activation of winds and ocean currents so as to determine the climate of different regions on the earth. Basically the climate effecting factors are termed as Climate forcing. The main climate forcing or forcing mechanisms are as follows: Variation in albedo Difference in the Earths orbit Variation in green house gas concentrations Building of mountain and continental drift etc. Global warming on the other hand can be termed as the average rise in the temperature of the climate system of the Earth (Fracking could accelerate global warming, 2013). A lot of different lines of observation are reflecting that the system of climate is warming day by day. Global warming is generally the amount of heat retained back by the earths surface. Yet since 1970 it is being noticed that the climate system has extended up to warming of ocean. Ice are melting slowly in the frozen regions, thereby increasing the temperature in the other continents (Global warming: Outlook for Earth, 2013). The main reasons for global warming are: Variation in atmospheric composition Eruption of volcano Changes in the Earths orbit pattern Solar luminosity Population growth (man-made cause) Impact of climate change and global warming: Statistical Data Impact The main contributors of global warming are the widely spreading greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane. It has been observed that over the past last one century, the earth has warmed up 1 degree Fahrenheit. The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment reports that over the past 50 years, the temperature has increased as much as 3 to 4 degree Celsius in different regions like Alaska, Eastern Russia and Western Canada (Heffernan, 2013). The new statistical data provided on global warming states that the concentration of Carbon dioxide gas has increased from 290 parts per million to 400 parts per million. The main sources for the increased concentration of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere are different industries like transportation, electric power generation and agriculture. The most remarkable report that has been updated by NASA recently shows that the concentration of ice in Arctic Sea ice has diminished to 13.3 percent per decade from 7.8 percent per decade in 1980s (Hoag, 2013). The very recent report submitted in accordance to the Third National Climate Assessment Report by the U.S. Global Change Research Program is of the following opinion: The changing aspects of heat waves, rising of sea level in the North East is endangering different aspects of life such agriculture, ecosystem, infrastructure, fisheries etc. The major reasons of climatic threat in North West part of the world are the erosion, reducing rate of water supply, rise in sea level etc. In the South East part, the rising level of the seas has become a major threat to the regions economy and environment. This in turn will effect health, agriculture and more. Infrastructure, agriculture, human life is likely to get effected in the Mid-West region due to the effects of global warming, thereby causing heavy rainfall, and flooding as a result. Major effects: The major effect of global is that the climate of the earth has warmed up rapidly. Changes are being noticed in the measurement of the sea level and the temperature of the land. It is being noticed that there is a rise of sea level and temperature of the land, more than the normal rate suppose to take place. Changes in weather in different region of the world is one the major effects of global warming which is mostly caused by the activities of the human. Changes like, variation in the amount of precipitation and amount of rainfall are the major signs of change in weather of a place. Weather is kind of becoming extreme in nature and such changes are becoming prolonged for a considerable period of time than it is normally expected to be. The major effect of this global warming which is increasing in a noticeable rate is the rise in the sea level (Mayer, Canon and Coleman, 2014). This is mainly because, since the earth is retaining more amount of heat than it normally should retain, th e land is getting heated, as a result of which ice is melting at a rapid rate, thereby rising the level of the seas. The major impact of global warming and climate change falls on the eco-system and social life of the human beings. Due to the change in weather, agriculture pattern of the concerned region will have an impact on it, thereby effecting human life (Ollier, 2013). Even human beings will be required to adjust to the changing pattern of the weather by changing their food consuming pattern, living necessities, housing pattern etc. Human beings are facing different sorts of health problems due to rapid weather changes. Diseases like malaria, typhoid, diarrhoea have increased in rate, thereby causing death of more people. The most distinct impact of global warming has fallen on the wildlife and greenery of the world. Due to the effect on climate, birds that used to migrate during winter season are not found to be migrating any more nowadays (Oxlade, 2012). The most important effects on the plantation life on the earth are pest infestation, soil erosion and degradation, invasion of species etc. Basically there is an overall change in the biological, ecological and sociological system of the world. Suggestions and strategies to be adopted for curbing out global warming: The main causes for global warming are induced mostly by man. So it is we human being who have the remedy in our hands to get relief from global warming. If we people, channelize our activities in a discipline way, then we might be able to save our mother earth from being effected by global warming (Scherer, 2012). Here are few of the steps mentioned to get a relief from global so to give ourselves and others a better place to live in: Driving less or using your car less would help you not only to save fuel consumption but also it will help to reduce global warming. As it is known that one of the major cause of global warming it the discharge of excessive carbon dioxide into the air. Reducing, reusing and recycling is one of the best way to save our mother earth from global warming. Using of solar energy as a medium of energy on the earth will somewhat save the earth from global warming. Buying of energy saving appliances and there utilisation will help in reducing energy consumption at a rapid rate, thereby decreasing the rate of global warming. If waste products are reduced in number, then the earth might be saved from global warming. It is known to us that landfills are the biggest contributors of greenhouse gas. Reducing waste will reduce concentration of greenhouse gases. Plantation of tree is one of the major contribution that we human being can do to the nature. It will not only help in beautification of our society but at the same will help in reducing the global warming by taking in carbon dioxide from the air (Sinn, 2012). Farms should use less or no amount of pesticides for agricultural purpose. This pesticides contents minerals that are harmful for the soil, thereby causing global warming. Utilisation of fuel cells for production of electricity is one of the ways to save our mother earth from global warming. These fuel cells will not emit greenhouse gases while production of electricity. Conclusion: It is to be remembered that our problem are man-made, so it is we the human beings who can solve these issues (Water stress, not heat, will cut yields under global warming, 2013). For we all know, that these global warming is not endangering our living on this earth but also the living of the variety of species. So, it is high time now, that we all join our hands to curb out this evil to save our mother earth from being destroyed, keeping our safety and security in our own hands. References Anderson, M. (2012). Global Warming. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing in association with Rosen Educational Services. Colligan, L. (2012). Global warming. New York: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark. Fracking could accelerate global warming. (2013). New Scientist, 219(2929), p.6. Global warming: Outlook for Earth. (2013). Nature, 501(7467), pp.297-297. Heffernan, O. (2013). Global warming expands Antarctic sea ice. Nature. Hoag, H. (2013). Ozone-hole treaty slowed global warming. Nature. Mayer, K., Canon, D. and Coleman, J. (2014). The enduring debate. New York: W.W. Norton Company. Ollier, C. (2013). Global Warming and Climate Change: Science and Politics. Quaestiones Geographicae, 32(1). Oxlade, C. (2012). Global warming. Mankato, Minn.: Smart Apple Media. Scherer, L. (2012). Global warming. Detroit: Greenhaven Press. Sinn, H. (2012). The green paradox. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Water stress, not heat, will cut yields under global warming. (2013). ECOS.

Tartuffe By Molliere Essays - Tartuffe, Molire, Le Tartuffe, Oregon

Tartuffe By Molliere Tartuffe is a classic story of deceit by one who is trusted and respected. Tartuffe, the deceitful holy man, is living in the house of Oregon. Oregon has opened his doors to Tartuffe, and he greatly respects him for being the good holy man he was thought to be. The rest of the family believe that Tartuffe is a fake and a con. Oregon and Madam Parcelle are the two which believe in his holy reputation. Tartuffe convinces Oregon that he is an incredible man of great holy stature, and Oregon proceeds to sign over to Tartuffe all his possessions. Outward Appearances can sometimes be deceiving. This is evident in the way Oregon looked at Tartuffe. Tartuffe was thought to be a man of great holy influence. Oregon thought Tartuffe was a high holy figure, who was admirable because of his devotion to God. Tartuffe is actually a two- faced con artist who has no interests but that of his own welfare. Oregon is blinded by these ideals. Tartuffe takes advantage of this blindness and attempts to seduce Oregon's wife and con Oregon out of all his possessions. Another action by Tartuffe was the first steps of seducing Oregon's wife. He uses his rosary to pull her in closer. In this episode, Tartuffe is using a symbol of purity and holiness as a tool of lust and sin. At some points, he'd be eloquent and dignified, but at times he would be as if he was going after her. There is another aspect to the seduction by Tartuffe of Oregon's wife. Molierre has Oregon hiding under a table when Tartuffe is trying to physically seduce his wife. Oregon had never believed his family that Tartuffe was two faced. Oregon, seeing with his own eyes what Tartuffe was doing, finally believes them. This shows that sometimes people don't believe something until they see it with their own eyes. Moilere succeeded in making Oregon and Madam Parcelle stubborn and unmoving. Oregon was stubborn when he did not believe his family over Tartuffe. It was a bold action the wife undertook to convince Oregon that Tartuffe was a fake. Only an action so bold would convince him. Oregon felt the affect of this stubbornness when he was trying to convince Parcelle of Tartuffe's deceitfulness. He was outwardly frustrated at her remarks about him and Tartuffe. Again, she needed outward proof, and she received it when the eviction notice came as Oregon was trying to convince her. The voice of reason and control in this play comes from a character by the name of Cleante. This character counters Oregon's stubbornness and irrationality by providing stability and control over the situation. Cleante is Oregon's brother- in- law. When Cleante notices that Tartuffe has taken over the household, he organizes a meeting to come up with a solution or plan to the situation. The actor playing Tartuffe would frequently face the camera and make faces showing his deceitfulness toward the camera. This gives the audience and insight which is not seen by the rest of the characters in the play. These actions lead to dramatic irony which introduces new aspects to the play. Camera angles played an important and interesting role in this production of Tartuffe. During the scene of the attempted escape by Oregon, the camera angle was shot in the first person of Oregon. It showed Oregon's point of view as he was exiting. This method was used a couple more times in the production. Also, camera angles were oddly placed at times. While the family was planning, the camera at one point was shooting between two chairs at the table, giving a different perspective of the planning period. Also, the Camera would sometimes be moved and hurried, giving a sense of confusion. Lighting played a small role in this production. The most prominent example of the use of variation of light was in the speech given by the guard towards the end of the production. A bright white light was cast from behind making what he had to say more catching and seemingly important. The light also gave him a look of being omnipotent at the time of his speech. Tartuffe is a play emphasizing deceit, reputations, integrity, stubbornness, and the ability to be blinded by something that we see as good, but really is harmful. Outward appearances are sometimes misinterpreted. This is what happened to Oregon and Tartuffe. This play contains many conditions which are evident in real life situations, and that is what has made it

The Benefits of Writing Concisely - Proofread My Paper

The Benefits of Writing Concisely - Proofread My Paper The Benefits of Writing Concisely Despite popular belief, wordiness – using more words than necessary to make a point – doesn’t make a paper sound more intellectual. Rather, it clouds your ideas and detracts from the impact of your writing. Writing concisely, on the other hand, will improve your work by: Keeping your point focused Ensuring your arguments flow clearly Helping you stay within the word allowance of your assignments But how do you make sure your written work is always concise? Focus on Your Thesis Somewhere at the beginning of your paper, you should have a clear statement of your thesis. This will guide the rest of your paper, since every point you make should add to your argument. If something in your work is not relevant to your thesis, consider whether it needs to be there. Faster! Harder! Stronger! (aka Editing Ruthlessly) The first draft is only the starting point in writing a good academic paper. Once you’ve got everything down, re-read it carefully, looking for errors and considering potential improvements. In terms of readability, this will typically include eliminating unnecessary words, tightening sentence structures and making sure that each paragraph flows smoothly to the next. Avoid Redundancy and Repetition Beware of redundancy and repetition. Redundancy is when we use a phrase that includes additional terms for no reason: in â€Å"the car was green in color,† for instance, â€Å"in color† is redundant because we know that â€Å"green† usually refers to a color. Repetition, meanwhile, is the unnecessary inclusion of the same point twice. If you’ve already introduced a concept in your work, for example, there’s no need to reintroduce it later on. Cutting repetition can make your writing much more succinct. Words, Not Phrases Try not to use several words when one will do. For instance, the sentence: It was an experience that I found very interesting for many reasons and from which I learned a lot. Could be rewritten more concisely as: It was a fascinating and educational experience. Simply put, â€Å"fascinating† and â€Å"educational† are an economical way of saying â€Å"I found interesting for many reasons† and â€Å"from which I learned a lot† respectively. As such, the rewritten sentence is easier to read.

A Short History of the Rwandan Genocide

A Short History of the Rwandan Genocide On April 6, 1994, Hutus began slaughtering the Tutsis in the African country of Rwanda. As the brutal killings continued, the world stood idly by and just watched the slaughter. Lasting 100 days, the Rwandan Genocide left approximately 800,000 Tutsis and Hutu sympathizers dead. Who Are the Hutu and Tutsi? The Hutu and Tutsi are two peoples who share a common past. When Rwanda was first settled, the people who lived there raised cattle. Soon, the people who owned the most cattle were called Tutsi, and everyone else was called Hutu. At this time, a person could easily change categories through marriage or cattle acquisition. It wasnt until Europeans came to colonize the area that the terms Tutsi and Hutu took on a racial role. The Germans were the first to colonize Rwanda in 1894. They looked at the Rwandan people and thought the Tutsi had more European characteristics, such as lighter skin and a taller build. Thus they put Tutsis in roles of responsibility. When the Germans lost their colonies following World War I, the Belgians took control of Rwanda. In 1933, the Belgians solidified the categories of Tutsi and Hutu by mandating that every person was to have an identity card that labeled them either Tutsi, Hutu, or Twa. (The Twa are a very small group of hunter-gatherers who also live in Rwanda.) Although the Tutsi constituted only about ten percent of Rwandas population and the Hutu nearly 90 percent, the Belgians gave the Tutsi all the leadership positions. This upset the Hutu. When Rwanda struggled for independence from Belgium, the Belgians switched the status of the two groups. Facing a revolution instigated by the Hutu, the Belgians let the Hutus, who constituted the majority of Rwandas population, be in charge of the new government. This upset the Tutsi, and the animosity between the two groups continued for decades. The Event That Sparked the Genocide At 8:30 p.m. on April 6, 1994, President Juvà ©nal Habyarimana of Rwanda was returning from a summit in Tanzania when a surface-to-air missile shot his plane out of the sky over Rwandas capital city of Kigali. All on board were killed in the crash. Since 1973, President Habyarimana, a Hutu, had run a totalitarian regime in Rwanda, which had excluded all Tutsis from participating. That changed on August 3, 1993, when Habyarimana signed the Arusha Accords, which weakened the Hutu hold on Rwanda and allowed Tutsis to participate in the government, which greatly upset Hutu extremists. Although it has never been determined who was truly responsible for the assassination, Hutu extremists profited the most from Habyarimanas death. Within 24 hours after the crash, Hutu extremists had taken over the government, blamed the Tutsis for the assassination, and begun the slaughter. 100 Days of Slaughter The killings began in Rwandas capital city of Kigali. The Interahamwe (those who strike as one), an anti-Tutsi youth organization established by Hutu extremists, set up roadblocks. They checked identification cards and killed all who were Tutsi. Most of the killing was done with machetes, clubs, or knives. Over the next few days and weeks, roadblocks were set up around Rwanda. On April 7, Hutu extremists began purging the government of their political opponents, which meant both Tutsis and Hutu moderates were killed. This included the prime minister. When ten Belgian U.N. peacekeepers tried to protect the prime minister, they too were killed. This caused Belgium to start withdrawing its troops from Rwanda. Over the next several days and weeks, the violence spread. Since the government had the names and addresses of nearly all Tutsis living in Rwanda (remember, each Rwandan had an identity card that labeled them Tutsi, Hutu, or Twa), the killers could go door to door, slaughtering the Tutsis. Men, women, and children were murdered. Since bullets were expensive, most Tutsis were killed by hand weapons, often machetes or clubs. Many were often tortured before being killed. Some of the victims were given the option of paying for a bullet so that theyd have a quicker death. Also during the violence, thousands of Tutsi women were raped. Some were raped and then killed, others were kept as sex slaves for weeks. Some Tutsi women and girls were also tortured before being killed, such as having their breasts cut off or had sharp objects shoved up their vagina. Slaughter Inside Churches, Hospitals, and Schools Thousands of Tutsis tried to escape the slaughter by hiding in churches, hospitals, schools, and government offices. These places, which historically have been places of refuge, were turned into places of mass murder during the Rwandan Genocide. One of the worst massacres of the Rwandan Genocide took place on April 15 to 16, 1994 at the Nyarubuye Roman Catholic Church, located about 60 miles east of Kigali. Here, the mayor of the town, a Hutu, encouraged Tutsis to seek sanctuary inside the church by assuring them they would be safe there. Then the mayor betrayed them to the Hutu extremists. The killing began with grenades and guns but soon changed to machetes and clubs. Killing by hand was tiresome, so the killers took shifts. It took two days to kill the thousands of Tutsi who were inside. Similar massacres took place around Rwanda, with many of the worst ones occurring between April 11 and the beginning of May. Mistreatment of the Corpses To further degrade the Tutsi, Hutu extremists would not allow the Tutsi dead to be buried. Their bodies were left where they were slaughtered, exposed to the elements, eaten by rats and dogs. Many Tutsi bodies were thrown into rivers, lakes, and streams in order to send the Tutsis back to Ethiopia- a reference to the myth that the Tutsi were foreigners and originally came from Ethiopia. Media Played a Huge Role in the Genocide For years, the Kangura newspaper, controlled by Hutu extremists, had been spouting hate. As early as December 1990, the paper published The Ten Commandments for the Hutu. The commandments declared that any Hutu who married a Tutsi was a traitor. Also, any Hutu who did business with a Tutsi was a traitor. The commandments also insisted that all strategic positions and the entire military must be Hutu. To isolate the Tutsis even further, the commandments also told the Hutu to stand by other Hutu and to stop pitying the Tutsi. When RTLM (Radio Tà ©là ©vison des Milles Collines) began broadcasting on July 8, 1993, it also spread hate. However, this time it was packaged to appeal to the masses by offering popular music and broadcasts conducted in a very informal, conversational tone. Once the killings started, RTLM went beyond just espousing hate; they took an active role in the slaughter. The RTLM called for the Tutsi to cut down the tall trees, a code phrase which meant for the Hutu to start killing the Tutsi. During broadcasts, RTLM often used the term inyenzi (cockroach) when referring to Tutsis and then told Hutu to crush the cockroaches. Many RTLM broadcasts announced names of specific individuals who should be killed; RTLM even included information about where to find them, such as home and work addresses or known hangouts. Once these individuals had been killed, RTLM then announced their murders over the radio. The RTLM was used to incite the average Hutu to kill. However, if a Hutu refused to participate in the slaughter, then members of the Interahamwe would give them a choice- either kill or be killed. The World Stood By and Just Watched Following World War II and the Holocaust, the United Nations adopted a resolution on December 9, 1948, which stated that The Contracting Parties confirm that genocide, whether committed in time of peace or in time of war, is a crime under international law which they undertake to prevent and to punish. The massacres in Rwanda constituted genocide, so why didnt the world step in to stop it? There has been a lot of research on this exact question. Some people have said that since Hutu moderates were killed in the early stages, then some countries believed the conflict to be more of a civil war rather than a genocide. Other research has shown that the world powers realized it was a genocide but that they didnt want to pay for the needed supplies and personnel to stop it. No matter what the reason, the world should have stepped in and stopped the slaughter. The Rwanda Genocide Ends The Rwanda Genocide ended only when the RPF took over the country. The RPF (Rwandan Patriotic Front) was a trained military group consisting of Tutsis who had been exiled in earlier years, many of whom lived in Uganda. The RPF was able to enter Rwanda and slowly take over the country. In mid-July 1994, when the RPF had full control, the genocide was finally stopped. Sources Semujanga, Josias. The Ten Commandments of the Hutu. Origins of the Rwandan Genocide, Humanity Books, 2003, pp. 196-197.

Looking for Parity in the Gender Pay Gap Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Looking for Parity in the Gender Pay Gap - Essay Example The gender pay gap remains a major hindrance to gender equality. There are a number of theoretical explanations of this phenomenon that help identify the various forces contributing to the gender segregation process. These theories can be classified into three: institutional, structural, and individual. This essay discusses these three theories, but it is the contention of the author that no particular explanation is adequate to completely give explanation for the presence of gender segregation. Every theory provides a distinctive explanation of how gender segregation works. The first section briefly discusses the historical roots of gender pay gap, particularly in the UK. The discussion then focuses on the theories, the supply- and demand-side. Basically, this essay critically assesses the argument that gender pay gap is fair in that it reflects the differing work and care priorities of men and women. Historical Roots of Gender Pay Gap In the 1940s, the post-war welfare state in the UK was rooted in the idea that men are the breadwinner while women are the housekeepers. Both the occupational system and the benefit system relied on this idea of a male breadwinner. Nevertheless, the idea was subjected to heavy scrutiny in the 1960s and 1970s, driven by the evolving labour market conditions and by the demands of the Women’s Movement (Bagilhole, 2009, p. 11).... The differences between the occupational profile of men and women, the comparative gap between full-time and part-time employment, and the level of participation of women in the labour market are commonly emphasised as having a considerable effect on the GPG (Grimshaw & Rubery, 2007; Blau & Kahn, 2001). The discourse on the importance of individual objectives against structural limitations has an extensive history in the social sciences. This section discusses two theories of gender wage inequality: Hakim’s Preference theory/Rational Choice and the Human Capital theory. Hakim disputes what she believes is the prevailing feminist perspective on the patterns of female employment. She believes that part-time employment or career breaks are decisions made by women willingly because of their obligations at home and the inadequate availability of childcare services (Davis, Evans, & Lorber, 2006). Instead, the underprivileged position of women in the labour market manifests the conse quences of their changing work preferences. Hakim explains that both men and women are the driving forces in their own lives, hence â€Å"self-classification as a primary earner or secondary earner is determined by chosen identities, rather than imposed by external circumstance or particular jobs† (Davis et al., 2006, p. 255). Basically, the core assumption of Hakim is that the employment experiences of women are mostly the outcome of these women’s decisions. Hakim illustrates, more accurately, that part-time employment is preferred by women, referred to as ‘grateful slaves’, mostly committed to their domestic obligations. On the contrary, ‘self-made women’,

Fear of Failure Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Fear of Failure - Research Paper Example Moreover, this social self also secretly cherishes to be approved, acknowledged and be deemed as a success. Thus, many people are apprehensive of failure because through their unparalleled achievements, they want to quench the craving of their social selves. The correlation between fear of failure and conditional self-esteem: From childhood onwards, we are exposed to the belief that, love, rewards, happiness and recognition can only coexist with success and achievement. Failure on the other hand is juxtaposed with, dismissal, rejection and disapproval. During the adolescence years, this belief is time and again reaffirmed- both in the classroom setting as well as within one’s domestic domain. For instance, children who are considered as high achievers are often showered with more love, attention and encouragement- both by teachers as well as by parents. Consequently, a child’s self-esteem and self-regard becomes rigidly dependent on his achievement in either academic or social endeavours. This conditional self-esteem is carried into adulthood as well and constantly gives negative feed-back to the individual regarding his so-called failures.

Drawing Essay Example for Free

Drawing Essay I believe drawing is the single most important skill for any visual artist to acquire, whether they are a painter, illustrator, graphic designer, or fashion designer. It is simply the act of seeing made visual. When one learns how to draw, what they are really learning is the ability to see more clearly and communicate what they see or can imagine. As such, drawing is a tool for study, and communication even before it is a tool for making art. When you draw a picture, do you draw the character in blocks first or what? I just cant seem to get my characters anatomically right. I saw your booklist on your site. Do you know of any books which teach you to draw the body in blocks? From Christine Lau I dont draw blocks first when drawing a figure. Usually Ill do a very loose, light, scribbly gesture drawing instead. If you want to learn the blocks method, try any of the books by George Bridgeman, Andrew Loomis, or the books by Robert Beverly Hale. (all are listed on my site) Avoid books by Burne Hogarth, (one of my old teachers) as they arent very accurate and can be very misleading. (note: Glenn Vilppus books are also an excellent source!) By far, the best book for anatomy though is the book by Stephen Rogers Peck (also on the site). There is no quick fix for drawing anatomyit just takes a few years of study. Keep it up though, its worth it once you get a handle on it!!! p.s. Also, draw from live nude models as much as possible, thats the best method to learn it. What is the hardest thing to draw? From Everybody! Nothing is really harder or easier to draw in a mechanical sense. If a person can draw one thing, they are perfectly capable of drawing something else with the same degree of accuracy. The problem is in the phrase the same degree of accuracy. If someone says they can draw, for instance, landscapes, but they cant draw people, what they are really saying is, when I draw landscapes, I draw well enough that no one can tell what Ive drawn incorrectly. The reason people, and especially faces, are so difficult to draw is not because they themselves are any harder to draw than a tree. What changes is our tolerance as viewers for any degree of inaccuracy. We are so intimately familiar with faces and their associated nuances, that the slightest deviation appears as a gross misproportion. Because of this, I am constantly demanding my students draw people, and especially self-portraits, because they effectively highlight any weak skill areas that need attention. My students erron eously believe its because Im sadistic. What purpose does drawing have for artists today? From Carole (Shropshire, United Kingdom) I think people often misrepresent drawing as a medium, or group of mediums, rather than an activity. I see drawing as the visual equivalent of language. It is simply the way we communicate ideas visually through a series of marks on a ground. So to rephrase the question, it is a little like asking What purpose does speaking have for people today? For both, the answer I would give is the communication of information. This information can take the form of ideas, thoughts, commentary, entertainment, or just literal facts, but for all of these, drawing is just the mode of transmission. How artfully this is done is another, separate, issue. In the case of artists specifically, it is the fastest and most efficient way to represent an idea visually. Far more immediate than any other way of doing it, a quickly drawn sketch or thumbnail is usually the first look an artist has at how they might execute an idea.

Sainsbury’s Human Resources Involvement With Health And Safety :: Human Resources Essays

Health and safety doesn’t just occur in HR. It has to be closely and carefully monitored at all times. Human resources must comply with a significant amount of legislation; this is where the human resources part comes into function in this area. Sainsbury’s HR like all other businesses has a safety policy. This is a legal requirement, the policy says in simple terms what the aims of Sainsbury’s are in relation to health and safety of employees. It also includes key members of staff and actions for carrying out the policy. The policy will include arrangements covering training and instruction, company rules and emergency arrangements. This will be signed by the senior manger; it is revised regularly to be kept up to date. Sainsbury’s HR has their own codes of practise; this is unique to Sainsbury’s HR as all different businesses have their own. This states what employees should do in an even of an emergency, such as a fire, bomb scare etc. It says how to contact a first-aider, where a medical room is, calling a doctor and so on. Sainsbury’s HR has a health and safety office in all their stores; they have the responsibility for all health and safety policies and training. They advise store managers about their responsibilities for h+s and make sure that all employees working in stores are informed about them. This is all to do with health and safety laws. They place a responsibility on both the store managers and employees. Human resources record all accidents in an accident book which all employees have, they also record ‘near misses’ so they can see where improvements need to be made. Human resources train new staff for health and safety jobs which include roles being health and safety officers, safety committee meeting holders etc. Customers are also accounted into the health and safety acts for Sainsbury’s HR, these include:- * Disability needs accounted for- wheelchair access, lifts, helpers etc * Car parks- checked regularly for trolleys causing hazards, etc. * Customer fire exits- Kept clear at all times. * Shelves- all stacked to the lowest they can be. * Warning signs- always can be visible and heard. * Smoking, drinking, eating- banned in all stores. * Substances and solvents- all kept in unreachable areas for children’s safety (3rd or 4th level shelves). * Toilets- checked every half an hour for staff and customers. There are a lot more things human resources do to protect all their customers and employees. Health and safety is important for human resources as it protects their employees and customers, Sainsbury’s reputation will not be very good if employees

Hinilawod Summary Essay

Hinilawod recounts the story of the exploits of three Sulodnon demigod brothers, Labaw Donggon, Humadapnon and Dumalapdap of ancient Panay. It would take about three days to perform the epic in its original form. Thus, making it as one of the longest epics in the world. Kaptan, the king of the Gods, decreed that the beautiful Alunsina (also called Laun Sina, The Unmarried One) marry upon reaching her maidenhood. Though all the unmarried gods from every corner of the universe tried to win her hand in marriage, she chose to marry a mortal, Datu Paubari, ruler of the Halawod. Angered by Alunsina’s decision, her suitors conspired to harm the newlywed couple. Maklium-sa-t’wan, the god of the plains, called a council meeting of the Gods. The council decided to destroy the couple’s home, Halawod, by flood. Fortunately for Alunsina and her husband, her sister Suklang Malayon (Goddess and Guardian of Happy Homes) discovered the evil plot and warned them of it. Before the flood, the new couple sought refuge on a higher ground and escaped the gods’ wrath undetected. They returned to the plains and settled near the mouth of the Halawod River after the flood has subsided and lived in secrecy. After several months, Alunsina became pregnant with triplets. The couple was ecstatic and Datu Paubari prepared the things needed for childbirth including the siklot. When the triplets were born, the couple called them Labaw Dongon, Humadapnon and Dumalapdap. Immediately after giving birth, Alunsina summoned the high priest Bungot-Banwa to perform the rites of the gods of the Mount Madya-as to ensure that the triplets will have good health. During the ritual, Bungot-Banwa burned some alanghiran fronds and a pinch of kamangyan in an altar that he made himself. He opened the windows of the north side of the room after the ceremony and in came a cold wind that transformed the infants into strong, handsome young men. When he reached adulthood, Labaw Donggon, the eldest of the triplets, decided to go on a quest to find himself a wife. He heard of the beauty of Angoy Ginbitinan of Handug and wanted her for a wife. He asked his mother to prepare the things he will need for the journey—a magic cape, hat and belt, and kampilan (sword). The journey to Handug took several days. Labaw Donggon had to pass by plains, valleys and mountains to get there. When he finally arrived, he asked for an audience with Angoy Ginbitinan’s father and asked for her hand in marriage. The father agreed in one condition: Labaw Donggon  must kill the monster Manalintad as part of his dowry. Labaw Donggon agreed and went away to confront the monster. With the help of his magic belt, he was able to kill the Manalintad. He cut off the tail of the monster and brought it back to Handug as a proof of his victory. Angoy Gibintinan’s father was satisfied with the proof and allowed Labaw Donggon to marry his daughter. After the wedding, Labaw Donggon and his new bride started their journey back to his home. Along the way, they m et a group of young men who were on their way to Tarambang Burok to win the hand of Abyang Durunuun, sister of Sumpoy, the lord of the underworld. According to these young men, Abyang Durunuun has beauty that equals no other. Labaw Donggon and Angoy Gibintinan continued on their journey. Upon reaching home, Labaw Donggon asked his mother to take care of his new wife and told her that he will be going on another quest. This time he will be going to Tarambang Burok and vie for the hand of the beautiful Abyang Durunuun. On his way to Tarambang Burok, Labaw Donggon had an encounter with the giant Sikay Padalogdog. This giant had a hundred arms and he won’t let the young demi god pass without a fight. And fight they did. In the end, the hundred-armed giant admitted defeat and allowed the Labaw Donggon to pass the ridge. Labaw Donggon won the hand of the legendary Abyang Durunuun and also took her home to his mother. Thereafter, the demi god went on third quest to Gadlum. This time the object of his desire is Malitong Yawa Sinagmaling Diwata, the young bride of the lord of darkness, Saragnayan. Aboard his biday nga inagta (black boat), Labaw Donggon sailed across many seas on his way Gadlum. He also traveled across the region of the clouds and the land of stones before he found himself at the shores of Tulogmatian, the seaside fortress of Saragnayan. Upon setting foot on the shore, Saragnayan asked who he was and his business. When Labaw Donggon expressed his desire to have Saragnayan’s young wife, the lord of darkness just laughed and told him it’s impossible. The young dem i god then challenged the Saragnayan to a duel for the hand of the beautiful Malitong Yawa Sinagmaling Diwata. The duel lasted for years. Labaw Donggon held Saragnayan’s head underwater for seven years but the lord of the darkness still lived. With the help of his pamlang (amulet), Saragnayan defeated Labaw Donggon and imprisoned him beneath his house. Meanwhile, Labaw Donggon’s two wives gave birth to a son each. Angoy Ginbitinan called her child Aso Mangga while Abyang Durunuun called her son  Abyang Baranugon. Both sons went in search of their father a few days after they were born. They arrived in Tulogmatian and asked Saragnayan to free their father. Saragnayan told Abyang Baranugon to go home to his mother when he noticed that the young lad still has an umbilical cord. The young lad took offense and challenged the lord of the darkness to a duel. Saragnayan accepted the challenge and fought with Abyang Baranugon. The lord of darkness was no match for the strength of Abyang Baranugon and was defeated in the process. Abyang Baranugon earned the freedom of his father and took him home. Meanwhile, the defeat of Labaw Donggon in the hands of Saragnayan and his subsequent imprisonment angered his brothers Humadapnon and Dumalapdap. Humadapnon swore to the gods of Madya-as and vowed that he would seek revenge on all of Saragnayan’s kinsmen and followers. He then embarked on a journey to Saragnayan’s. He took with him a man known for his exceptional swordsmanship, Buyong Matanayon of Mount Matiula. Together they traveled the same path that Labaw Donggon took. The duo ended up at a place called Tarambang Buriraw. Here lives a seductive sorceress called Piganun. The sorceress changed herself into a very beautiful maiden and captured the heart of Humadapnon. No matter what Buyong Matanayon did, Humadapnon would not leave Tarambang Buriraw. After seven months of staying in Tarambang Buriraw, Buyong Matanayon remembered that they brought some ginger with them. He thought of a plan to break Piganun’s spell over his friend. One evening, at dinner, Buyong Matanayon threw seven slices of ginger into the fire. Upon smelling the burning ginger, Piganun ran away from the room. Buyong Matanayon struck Humadapnon in the head, which rendered the latter unconscious. He then dragged his body away from the place and managed to escape. The duo continued with their trek and exacted revenge on all of Saragnayan’s family and friend. They eventually found themselves in a place called Piniling Tubig. There was a big gathering when they arrived in the village because the ruler of the land, Datu Umbaw Pinaumbaw, was giving away the hand of his daughter in marriage to anyone who can remove the huge boulder that rolled off the mountain to the center of the village. No one has succeeded. Humadapnon rose to the challenge and took off his magic cape. He then used it to lift the huge boulder off the center of the village and hurled it back to the mountain. Datu Umbaw Pinaumbaw honored his word and gave his daughter’s hand in marriage to Humadapnon. The two were married and  a big feast was held. During the wedding feast, a guest minstrel sang and paid tribute to the beauty of Burigadang Pada Sinaklang Bulawan, the goddess of greed. Enchanted with the story, Humadapnon started on a quest to seek the goddess’ hand in marriage. He met Buyong Makabagting, son of the Datu Balahidyong of Paling Bukid, who was also hoping to win the hand of Burigadang Pada Sinaklang Bulawan. The two fought in a duel and Humadapnon emerged victorious. The defeated Buyong Makabagting helped Humadapnon in his quest. Humadapnon eventually married the goddess of greed and brought her home to his mother. Shortly after Humadapnon left their home to seek revenge on Saragnayan’s family and followers, Dumalapdap embarked on a quest of his own. He decided go to Burutlakan-ka-adlaw and marry the maiden Lubay-Lubyok Hanginun si Mahuyokhuyokon. With him was Dumasig, the most powerful wrestler in Madya-as. After several months of traveling, the two warriors came face to face with a two headed monster called Balanakon. The monster guarded the ridge that led to the place where the maiden lived. They managed to kill the monster but were confronted with another kind of monster when they reached the gate of the palace where the maiden lived. Called Uyutang, the monster was similar to a bat with sharp, poisonous claws. Dumalapdap fought with the Uyutang for seven months. He was able to defeat the monster when he grabbed its ankle and broke it. Then he took his iwang daniwan (magic dagger) and struck Uyutang under the armpit. The monster howled in pain, causing an earthquake that broke the ridge they were fighting in into two. Half of the ridge became an island that is known today as Negros, while the other half became Panay. With the monster Uyutang dead, Lubay-Lubyok Hanginun si Mahuyokhuyokan was free to marry Dumalapdap. He brought her home and was reunited with his family. Datu Paubari celebrated the return of his three sons with a very big feast. His sons left for different parts of the world after the feast. Labaw Donggon ventured north, Humadapnon went south, and Dumalapdap embarked to the west. Datu Parubari was left to rule in the east. Humdapnon was visited by his spirit friends Taghoy and Duwindi in his dream and told him of lovely maiden who lived in a village by the mouth of the Halawod River. The demigod left his dominion to look for the maiden named Nagmalitong Yawa. He brought with him a boatful of crew. Humadapnon and his men safely traversed through a sea the color of human blood with the help of his spirit friends. They landed on an island that was inhabited by beautiful  women and headed by the sorceress Ginmayunan. For seven years, Humadapnon and his crew were imprisoned in the island until Nagmalitong Yawa helped them escape by disguising as a boy. Humadapnon and Nagmalitong Yawa were married soon after in Halawod. During the wedding feast, Humadapnon’s brother, Dumalapdap fell in love with Huyung Adlaw and asked his brother to help him talk to the parents of the maiden. Humadapnon left his new wife and accompanied his brother to the Upperworld where Huyung Adlaw lived. It took the brothers sev en years to come back from their journey to the Upperworld. They arrived just in time for the ceremony that will have Nagmalitong Yawa married to Buyung Sumagulung, an island fortress ruler, in a ceremony. The brothers were enraged and killed all the guests and the groom. Humadapnon also stabbed his wife because the treachery only to feel remorse later on. He asked his spirit friends and found out that his wife only agreed to marry Buyung Sumagulung because her mother, Matan-ayon, convinced her that Humadapnon is not coming back. Upon learning of this, Humadapnon asked his sister, Labing Anyag, to use her powers to bring Nagmalitong Yawa back to life. Seeing how remorseful he is, Labing Anyag agreed. However, Nagmalitong Yawa was so ashamed of agreeing to marry Buyung Sumagulung that she ran away to the underworld and sought the protection of her uncle Panlinugun, who is lord of the earthquake. Humadapnon had to kill an eight-headed snake in his pursuit of Nagmalitong Yawa. Then he had to duel with a young man who spirited his wife away. The duel ended when Alunsina intervened and revealed that the young man is also her son, Amarotha. This son died during childbirth and was brought bac k from the dead to keep Alunsina company. Alunsina decided that both Humadapnon and Amarotha deserved a piece of Nagmalitong Yawa so she cut the girl in half and gave a piece each to her sons. Each half turned into a whole live person. Humadapnon brought his wife back to Panay.

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Smaato is the leading global mobile advertising exchange and helps mobile app developers and p ublishers make more ad revenues worldwide. As an industry pioneer and leader, Smaato provides Ads for Apps – operating the innovative leading mobile advertising optimization platform called SOMA. SOMA’s unique feature is the aggregation of 80+ leading ad networks globally to maximize mobile advertising revenues. More than 70,000 app developers and publishers use Smaato to monetize their content in over 230 countries. The company was founded in 2005 in USA, Smaato’s global headquarter is in San Francisco.Eu ropean headquarter is in Hamburg in Germany and the APAC headquarter is in Singapore. Smaato is one of the AlwaysOn Global 250 winners in the Mobile category (2012 & 2011) and was named a â€Å"company to watch in 2010? by Financial Analyst Company GP Bullhound. Currently we are looking for: Java Developer (Hamburg, GERMANY) As a Java developer you will join a team o f developers, where you will be taking part in designing, building, testing, and troubleshooting of the software platform SOMA . Currently our platform processes more than 1 billion inbound ad-requests per day.Each incoming request generates multiple outbound requests to Smaato's partners. SKILLS ? Attention to detail ? Knowledge of relevant procedures and tools ? Teamwork, initiative, flexibility and commitment ? Good knowledge of English ? Motivation to develop themselves personally and professionally ? Desire to work in a fast growing environment ? German language skills are nice to have QUALIFICATIONS ? Minimum Education: Bachelor's Degree ? Minimum Field of Expertise: Information technology ? Evaluated Experience in Java development ? Preferred Experience 3 years Do you find this challenge attractive? Please send your CV on: [email  protected] eu

Advertisements Manipulation on Teens Today in Society essays

Advertisements Manipulation on Teens Today in Society essays Advertisements' Manipulation on Teens Today in Society. Teens today, who watch television, listen to the radio, and read magazines and newspapers see, hear, or glance at advertisements. The business men and women behind the creation of the advertisements make millions of money because of consumer ignorance in the product that is shown or said about in their presence. However, teens are just human beings and are not perfect in society. The business people know how to attract its teen audience for their product. For instance, beautiful women seen in advertisements indirectly attract teenage men into buying the item. Famous celebrities who support a particular product. Older men who catch teenage girls eyes when the older men holds out the product. The advertisers are the mind manipulators for teenage consumers today. The commercial advertisements shown on television gives the teenage viewer an indirect position of what the business person is selling. For example, the Nike commercial which normally shows a notable basketball superstar dunking for the purpose of selling shoes and apparel also, shows at the end of the commercial, Just Do It. This message which can cause serious detours in a young teenagers choice in the get rich quick scheme of becoming famous and rich overnight by playing basketball. Another commercial is the Neutrogena clear pads which shows two beautiful girls using these pads on their so-called dirty faces so they can sell young girls their pads which do not work. The indirect purpose of the commercial is that young girls must be beautiful in order to satisfy themselves when they are already beautiful from the start. The ads in magazines and newspaper is another way of catching the teenager`s eye. In the magazines cigarettes, hot cars, drinks, and voluptuous, adult women are hot key strategies in luring a teenager, to the advertisers product. ...

Kathryns Stocketts The Help and 1960s Feminism

Kathryns Stocketts The Help and 1960s Feminism The Help is set in Mississippi during the early 1960s, when the groundswell of feminisms second wave was still building. Kathryn Stocketts novel revolves around events in 1962-1963, before the womens liberation movement, before Betty Friedan and other feminist leaders founded the National Organization for Women, before the media invented the myth of bra-burning. Although The Help is an imperfect depiction of the 1960s and the author stifles the budding feminism of some of her characters, the novel does touch on many issues that were relevant to 1960s feminism.   Issues Worth Exploring Skeeters Rebelliousness/IndependenceA hint of feminism in The Help may be most evident in post-college Skeeter, the young woman who questions restrictions placed on her by societys traditions. Her Southern socialite best friends have conformed to expectations by marrying, having children (or trying to) and even questioning why Skeeter stayed four years at Ole Miss to finish her degree, while they were dropping out of school. Skeeter is still trapped and still trying to fit in, but her inability to do so is partly due to her discomfort with the myth of femininity she is expected to live. White Women and Women of ColorThe so-called second wave of feminism is often criticized for being too white. Betty Friedans classic The Feminine Mystique and other 1960s feminism accomplishments often came from a limited, white, middle-class point of view. Similar criticisms have been applied to The Help. This is partly because it is written by a white author who narrates in the black voices of Minny and Aibileen, and partly because of the way white voices in the U.S. continually tell the story of the Civil Rights Movement from a limited point of view. Many critics have questioned Kathryn Stocketts ability to speak for the help. Although the story is about white and black women working together, it is difficult and even dangerous for them to do so. The Help reminds readers that some 1960s feminists were perceived as busily organizing, protesting and advocating without bringing women from other races to the table. Women and Civil RightsWhich comes first for African-American women, civil rights as blacks or liberation as women? This theme was explored by many black feminist activists, with some theorists responding that it is clearly an unfair question. The either/or dichotomy is part of the problem. No woman should be asked to give up any part of her sense of self. SisterhoodThe term sisterhood became a theme and rallying cry of feminism in the 1960s and 1970s. Use of the word was criticized by some, in part because of the racist and classist assumptions ascribed to white womens liberation activists who used the word. The Help emphasizes the solidarity of women in many different situations, often crossing racial boundaries. MarriageDespite her independent streak, Skeeter feels the pressure to marry, and nearly does so even when both emotional and logical signs point toward no. The marriages of various characters in the book - Skeeters parents, her friends, Aibileen, Minny, Stuarts parents, Celia Foote - are nearly all presented with problems that are intertwined with gender power dynamics. Domestic ViolenceMinny faces abuse from her husband Leroy with some degree of resignation. However, author Kathryn Stockett does seem at times to approach it with an ironic awareness of the public attention that would soon come to the issue of domestic violence. Feminist organizations such as NOW addressed domestic violence as one of their priority issues. Women in PublishingElaine Stein, the editor from New York who helps Skeeter, freely states that she will help because she recognizes the need for a woman to have a mentor, a connection or some kind of in to the male-dominated publishing industry. Economics, Maids and the Pink-Collar GhettoAfrican-American women depicted in The Help had to earn a living as maids in white families homes. Few other opportunities were available to them - very few. Feminists of the 1960s are often remembered for getting women out of the home. The truth is, many women did work outside of the home already, but one of the chief concerns of feminists was that women were relegated to lower paying jobs of less prestige with less advancement opportunity and less satisfaction. The term pink-collar refers to the traditional, lower-paid womens jobs. Empowering the Help: How the Personal Is PoliticalThe books main plot is about women telling their stories in a society that has long refused to hear their voices. Whether or not the novel is flawed or the author can properly speak for African-American maids, the idea of women speaking their truth as a path to greater social enlightenment is considered the backbone of feminism.

Wall In and The Lives of Others Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Wall In and The Lives of Others - Movie Review Example This paper illustrates that the Berlin wall lasted for 28 years (that is, from August of 1961 to November 1989). Its first erection was done during the hours of the night and it was seen to curb the fleeing of Germans from the East to the West. It was later to be demolished in an instantaneous way which triggered a great deal of celebration across the globe. When the WWII came to a conclusion, the then divided Allied powers took over Germany and divided it into quarters. The four zones were either occupied by Great Britain, the US, France or the Soviet Union. This had been after the agreement that was reached in the conference of Postman. This same approach was done in the capital city of Germany, Berlin. The relationship of the three powers forming part of the Allies in the WWII against the Soviet Union went on to deteriorate, the atmosphere of cooperation in Germany turned into a race and it also became more aggressive. In spite of the original intention to unify Germany had been s et the turn of events of competition brought about the split between the East and the West- Communism versus Democracy. The three of the four zones occupied by France, Great Britain, and the US on one side formed West Germany. The other zone remaining and which had been taken over by the Soviet Union was East Germany. This same division was also witnessed in Berlin. The fall of this Berlin wall, which was rather quick happened due to the weakening of the Communist bloc and the eventual disagreement of the citizens from the Eastern side of Germany.

Aristotelian Universals and Platonic Universals Essay

Aristotelian Universals and Platonic Universals - Essay Example Conflict of Universals: Conflict of universals or problem of universals is quite a long debated issue among the philosophers. The basic point of argument remains the same whether the universals exist or not. There has always been an attempt to ' "account for the phenomenon of similarity or attribute agreement among things." Whether a table made of rock or a stone both are similar or both have attributive agreement, having the common characteristic of hardness. This problem has given birth to two different disciplines in philosophy, namely, Realism and Nominalism. The realists are of opinion that universals exist on account of attributive agreement and Nominnalists opine that universals are non existent because they cannot explain attributive agreement among particulars. Platonic Universals: The idea of Platonic universals sometimes appears to be obscure or fruitless but his theory is one of the major foundations for epistemology and metaphysics. According to Plato, a universal is independent, non temporal and non spatial. A universal is something that cannot be perceived by senses and its knowledge comes through thought. The objects of thought that independently exist, establish the foundation for Platonic universals. ... But this very attribute of greenness is not something tangible and it cannot be experienced through senses. But at the same time Plato also specified that the green color of grass is not the only virtue that distinguishes it from other green colored in the world. Grass is never a leaf of a tree. In addition to its greenness, the grass is grass due to its unique attributes. Thus, by adopting the theory of Platonic universals, an individual can make clear distinction between all particulars in the world. Aristotelian Universals: Plato's disciple Aristotle came up with a very different idea about universals and the theory of Aristotelian universals produces a landmark solution to the problem of universals and conflict between realists and nominalists. According to Aristotle, universals can simply be classified into three categories, Relations, Types and Properties. The great philosopher further stated that universals exist in those places only where they are exemplified or instantiated and they only exist in things, never apart from things. Aristotle clearly stated that a universal is "'identical in each of its instances." So, in simple terms, Aristotle's theory says all green things in this universe are similar as there is a same universal or attribute, i.e greenness. This unique approach of Aristotelian theory removes several puzzles from the theories of universals in the metaphysical context. First, according to Aristotle, universals can be exemplified several times. He repeatedly emphasizes over the conception of "'one and the same universal" that, according to him, can be witnessed in every particulars. Now at this point common perception experiences a problem. It is hard to believe for an

MIS {excel project } Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

MIS {excel project } - Assignment Example Additionally; the total quantity of stock is calculated. The sales sheet provides data on sales of the items in stock by the respective customers. The sales are recorded and the total sales are also calculated. The sheet also stores details of the respective customers. The look up function is used in the item column to march the item with its code in the products sheet: =LOOKUP (H4, Products!$A$3:$A$13,Products!$B$3:$B$13). The look up function is also used to determine the price of each item: =LOOKUP ([@[Item Code]],Table1[Code],Table1[Selling Price]). It is in this sheet that the total sales are also calculated and the data sorted according to item code in ascending order. A pivot table called sales summary is generated from the sales sheet. In this sheet, the summary of sales of each item is displayed. The total sales of each item and all the items are totalled. A graph is then generated showing the quantity of items sold. Capital financing analysis is done on the capital financing sheet. In this sheet, the total capital required to establish the business is estimated. A list of possible financing options is also provided together with the percentage of financing. Additionally, the interest rate and the amount to be repaid is

Structure of the Male Reproductive System

Structure of the Male Reproductive System New chapter 35 The Male Reproductive System INTRODUCTION The male reproductive system has three principal functions: The differentiation and maintenance of the primary and secondary sex characteristics under the influence of the hormone testos ­terone, made in the testes. Spermatogenesis—the creation of the male gametes inside the testes. The penile delivery of sperm from the testes into the female’s vagina in the act of procre ­ation. This includes penile erection and ejaculation. SYSTEM STRUCTURE The male reproductive system comprises not only the male genitals, but also the cranial structures that help regulate the performance of the male re ­productive system—namely, the hypothalamus and pituitary. At the hypothalamic and pituitary level, however, male and female anatomy and histology are more or less the same. For more details on the hy ­pothalamic and pituitary structures involved in hu ­man reproduction, see Chapter 36. In the section that follows, we will focus on the anatomy and histology of the testes, the penis, and the ductal connections between the testes and penis. The Testes The male gonads, or testes, are suspended from the perineum in an external contractile sac called the scrotum (Figure 37.1A). Each testis is about 4 cm long, and the testes are perfused by the spermatic arteries. The spermatic arteries are closely apposed with the spermatic venous plexus, and this close contact al ­lows countercurrent heat exchange between artery and vein, cooling the blood that flows to the testes. Countercurrent heat exchange helps keep the testic ­ular temperature cool enough for optimal spermato ­genesis (1 °C to 2 °C cooler than body temperature). The external location of the testes in the scrotum serves as a second important cooling mechanism. Because the testes develop within the abdomen, they descend into the scrotum during fetal life, reaching the deep inguinal rings around week 28 of gestation and inhab ­iting the scrotum by birth. In some instances (3% of the time in full-term male infants), the testes do not descend—a condition called c ryptorchidism. Cryp ­torchidism must be corrected if the male is to have properly functioning, fertile gonads. The testes are composed of coiled seminiferous tubules embedded in connective tissue (see Figure 37.1B). The connective tissue, which makes up about 20% of the testicular mass, contains Leydig cells, which make testosterone. The seminiferous tubules, constituting 80% of the testicular mass, generate the sperm. The tubules contain two main cell types: spermatogonia and Sertoli cells. Sper ­matogonia are the germ cells that undergo meiosis to give rise to spermatids, the immediate precursors to spermatozoa. The copious cytoplasm of the Sertoli cells completely envelops and protects the spermatids, sealing them off from any contact with the tubules’ outer basement membrane or blood supply. This Sertoli sheath hence forms a blood-testis barrier to protect the male gametes from any harmful bloodborne agents, and to prevent the immune system from attacking the unique sperm-specific proteins as though they were foreign anti ­gens. By virtue of their position between the blood and the spermatids, the Sertoli cells also transport nutrients, oxygen, and hormones, such as testos ­terone, to the spermatids. Figure 37.1 Anatomy of the male reproductive system. A. Overview. B. A closer look at the testis. C. The ducts of the reproductive system shown in isolation. The ducts arising from both testes are depicted, converging on the posterior urethra inside the prostate gland. The spermatogonia sit outside the blood-testis barrier near the basement membrane. Here, they continuously conduct mitosis. The products of mitosis are pushed toward the tubule lumen and undergo meiosis and differentiation into sperm cells. The Sertoli barrier is fluid and accommodates the passage of cells developing into spermatids. The testes make around 120 million sperm a day. As they differentiate, the sperm migrate into the tubule lu ­men for transport distally to the rete testis, a plexus of ducts that collects sperm from each of roughly 900 seminiferous tubules. The rete testis empties into the epididymis, a single coiled tubule running from the top of the testis down its posterior aspect. In the epididymis, sperm are stored and undergo maturation before continuing their voyage outside the testis. The Ducts and Penis Each epididymis leads to a long, straight tube called the vas deferens (see Figure 37.1C). The vas deferens from the epididymis of each testis rises in the scrotum, ranges laterally through the inguinal canals, runs along the pelvic wall toward the poste ­rior, and descends along the posterior aspect of the bladder. Here the two vas deferens tubes widen into ampullae, which are attached to glands called the seminal vesicles. (There are two seminal vesicles, one for each vas deferens.) The seminal vesicles se ­crete more than half the volume of the semen. The two ampullae each send an ejaculatory duct through the prostate gland, and the ejaculatory ducts join the urethra inside the tissue of the prostate gland. From this point onward, the male urethra serves as part of both the reproductive and urinary tracts, unlike female anatomy, in which the reproductive and urinary tracts are completely separate. Male physiol ­ogy ensures that micturition and ejaculation do not occur simult aneously. The urethra next passes through the muscle tissue of the urogenital diaphragm, a consciously controllable sphincter. Sitting just under the urogen ­ital diaphragm are the bulbourethral glands (also called Cowper’s glands), which lubricate the urethra with mucus. Finally, the urethra enters the penis. The cylindrical penis houses the urethra in erectile tissue, which helps effect the transition between the excretory and reproductive functions of the urethra (Figure 37.2). This erectile tissue contains cavernous sinuses that fill with blood under circumstances of increased penile blood flow, leading to erection of the penis. When erect, the penis may be inserted into the vagina so that sperm may be delivered to the fallop ­ian tubes. Figure 37.2 Cross-section of the penis. The erectile tissue is present in three cylinders inside the penis, each called a corpus cavernosum and together called the corpora cavernosa. Two of the corpora lie dorsally and are sheathed by the ischio ­cavernosus muscles. One lies ventrally and is sheathed by the bulbospongiosus muscle. The ventral corpus cavernosum is also called the corpus spongiosum, and it is special in that it contains the urethra and forms the glans penis, the spongy head of the penis. The corpora are each supplied by a cavernous artery that gives out helicine arteries. The penis averages 8.8 cm (3.5 in) in length when flaccid and 12.9 cm (5.1 in) when erect, indicating no correlation between flaccid and erect size. SYSTEM FUNCTION Just as the female reproductive system is coor ­dinated by the hypothalamus and pituitary, the activities of the male reproductive system are coor ­dinated by the HPG axis, in this case the hypothala ­mic-pituitary-testicular (HPT) axis (Figure 37.3). (The gonadal HPT axis is not to be confused with the hy ­pothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis, also labeled HPT.) The male axis shares with the female the exact same hypothalamic hormone, gonadotropin- releasing hormone (GnRH), and the same pituitary go ­nadotropins, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). (The gonadotropins are named for their female reproductive functions, but they act in the male nonetheless.) The same array of gonadal steroid hormones that is produced by the ovary is also synthesized by the male reproductive system, but in different proportions. Because of differential expression of enzymes in the steroid synthesis pathway, the female gonad makes predom ­inantly progesterone and est rogen, while the male gonad predominantly makes the androgen steroid hormone testosterone. Testosterone inhibits the secretion of GnRH, LH, and FSH in a classic negative-feedback loop. Figure 37.3 Hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis. Plus signs represent stimulation; minus signs represent inhibition. The HPT Axis GnRH is the initial driver of testicular function. It is secreted in a pulsatile fashion (one pulse every 1 to 3 hours) and distributes to the pituitary gonadotrophs through the hypothalamic-pituitary portal circula- tion. There, the releasing hormone stimulates the LH- and FSH-secreting cells. Each GnRH pulse directly prompts an LH pulse from the gonadotrophs. More frequent or larger-amplitude GnRH pulses result in more frequent or larger-amplitude LH pulses. GnRH also increases FSH release, but the correlation between GnRH and FSH release is not as exact. LH acts on the Leydig cells. The LH signal is transduced by a seven- transmembrane receptor linked through a G protein to adenylyl cyclase, which produces cAMP. LH-dependent elevations in cAMP promote testosterone synthesis from cholesterol and promote the growth of Leydig cells. Testosterone synthesis is increased by the activation and increased expression of key proteins involved in steroidogenesis, such as the steroidogenic acute regu ­latory protein (StAR). StAR shuttles cholesterol into steroid-manufacturing cells. The Leydig cells of the testis are unique in their ability to make testosterone in large amounts (Figure 37.4). While the zona reticulata cells of the adrenal gland also make androgens, the adrenal pathway stops at androstenedione, the im ­mediate precursor to testosterone. (Some peripheral tissues can make testosterone from androstenedione in small amounts.) FSH, meanwhile, binds to receptors on the Sertoli cells, activating the production of proteins involved in spermatogenesis. FSH also stimulates glucose metabolism, thereby providing energy to the sperm precursors. (Spermatogenesis will be discussed in more detail below.) Finally, FSH upregu ­lates the expression of the androgen receptor in Sertoli cells, thereby potentiating the influence of testosterone upon spermatogenesis. Like all steroids, testosterone binds an intracel ­lular receptor, which binds DNA transcription factors and influences gene expression. The distribution of testosterone receptors in the body tissues deter ­mines the targets of testosterone action. In addition, target tissues express an enzyme that converts testos ­terone to its more active form, dihydrotestosterone (DHT). This enzyme is 5à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡-reductase. DHT binds more avidly to the androgen receptor than does testos ­terone itself. Testosterone from the Leydig cells passes through the Sertoli cells and into the seminif ­erous tubules, where, alongside FSH, it promotes spermatogenesis. The Sertoli cells make androgen-binding protein (ABP), which helps them to retain testosterone. Testosterone also acts systemically, promoting growth and sustaining gene expression in many peripheral tissues. Testosterone is transported in the blood by sex hormone-binding protein (SHBP), also called sex hormone-binding globulin, a liv er-produced carrier protein that is structurally similar to ABP. It is thought that testosterone and SHBP itself may act at cell membrane receptors, in addition to testosterone’s genomic effects. This is parallel to the genomic and nongenomic modes of signal transduc ­tion employed by thyroid hormone. Finally, testosterone inhibits GnRH and go ­nadotropin secretion. Thus, testosterone limits its own production and action. Inhibin from the Sertoli cells also inhibits the pituitary and hypothalamus. Inhibin is a TGF-à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¢ glycoprotein hormone. Investiga ­tions suggest that additional feedback mechanisms link Sertoli cell behavior with Leydig cell behavior. Table 37.1 summarizes the actions of testosterone. Table 37.1 Testosterone Actions The Expression of Male Sex Characteristics The male reproductive system begins to function during embryonic life. As soon as the testes form and are capable of secreting testosterone, the androgen begins to act on the body tissues. At this stage, the hormone differentiates the fetus into a male with the appropriate primary sex characteristics—the male genitals. At puberty, testosterone causes sustained expression of the secondary sex characteristics, which are gender-based phenotypes other than the genitals, such as hair growth, muscle development, and a low voice. Fetal Life and Infancy (Primary Sex Characteristics) While the testes do act in utero, they cannot act before they have formed, and they do not form right away. In fact, before 6 weeks of gestation, the gonads of geno ­typically male or female embryos have not begun to differentiate into either ovaries or testes. The so-called â€Å"indifferent gonad† has an inner medullary (male) and an outer cortical (female) layer. In addition, the anatomic precursors of both males (the Wolffian ducts) and females (the Mà ¼llerian ducts) are present. Only at 6 to 8 weeks of gestation is male sexual devel ­opment initiated by the SRY gene, a gene on the short arm of the Y chromosome. SRY encodes a zinc finger DNA-binding protein called testis determining factor (TDF). Under the influence of TDF, the medullae of the indifferent gonads develop while the cortices regress. The previously indifferent gonads differentiate into testes: embryonic germ cells form spermatogonia, coelomic epitheli al cells form Sertoli cells (6 to 7 weeks of gestation), and mesenchymal stromal cells form Leydig cells (8 to 9 weeks of gestation). Now the testes can begin to act. The Sertoli cells secrete a Mà ¼llerian-inhibiting factor (MIF), which causes regression of the Mà ¼llerian ducts. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)—which is structurally related to LH—stimulates the Leydig cells to prolifer ­ate and secrete testosterone. The testosterone is reduced to DHT in target tissues by 5à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡-reductase. As long as target tissues contain the androgen receptor and 5à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡-reductase, DHT induces those tissues to form the primary male sex characteristics, the male repro ­ductive organs. Under the influence of DHT, the Wolffian ducts differentiate into the epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicles. The genital tubercle transforms into the glans penis, the urethral folds grow into the penile shaft, and the urogenital sinus becomes the prostate gland. Finally, DHT causes the genital swellings to fuse, forming the scrotum. At its peak, the fetal testosterone level reaches 400 ng/dL, but by birth it falls below 50 ng/dL. There is a brief spike in the male infant’s testosterone level between 4 and 8 weeks after birth, but its function is not well understood. Otherwise, the testosterone level remains low throughout childhood, until puberty. Puberty and Beyond (Secondary Sex Characteristics) Puberty is the process by which males and females achieve reproductive capacity, and it begins in both sexes with an increase in hypothalamic GnRH secre ­tion. It is possible that this increase is in response to decreasing hypothalamic sensitivity to testos ­terone’s negative-feedback effects. As the child ap ­proaches adolescence, the hypothalamus gradually escapes inhibition and GnRH secretion rises. LH and FSH secretion in turn rise, and testosterone secretion from the testes increases. Gradual maturation of hypothalamic neurons probably plays a role in this pubertal change in GnRH secretion. Increased testicular production of testosterone and other androgens at puberty has a host of effects. The earliest one is enlargement of the penis and testes. From the beginning to the end of puberty, the testicular volume more than quadruples. Spermato ­genesis commences (with testosterone effects per ­haps being most important on the spermatids), and the prostate gland is stimulated to grow. Growth oc ­curs in many tissues outside the reproductive system as well. Androgens are anabolic steroids; they promote the storage of energy in complex molecules. While an ­drogens promote protein synthesis, an anabolic hor ­mone like insulin has a greater effect on the formation of complex carbohydrates and fats. Increased protein synthesis is associated with the growth of skeletal muscle, bones, skin, and hair (pubic, axillary, facial, chest, arms, and legs) and the growth of the larynx (which deepens the voice and causes the thyroid car ­tilage, or Adam’s apple, to protrude). Men on average have around 50% more muscle mass than women; they have stronger, denser bone matrices and thicker skin. Muscle does not contain 5à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡-reductase, so it ap ­pears that testosterone, not DHT, promotes muscular protein anabolism. However, testosterone or DHT may promote muscular anabolism via extramuscular effects, such as the stimulation of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) production. Collectively, the development of the secondary sex characteristics is called virilization (after the Latin vir for man). It appears that while testosterone promotes all of these effects—genital growth and spermatogenesis, hair growth, behavioral changes, and anabolism in peripheral tissues—certain andro ­gen precursors, metabolic byproducts, and pharma ­ceutical androgen analogs preferentially serve peripheral anabolism. Many of these metabolites and drugs are abused by bodybuilders and athletes. (See Clinical Application Box The Use and Abuse of An ­abolic Steroids.) Testosterone, combined with a genetic predis ­position, also influences hair growth on the head. Male-pattern baldness typically begins with a de ­crease in hair growth on the top of the head and progresses to a complete lack of hair growth extend ­ing from the top of the head down. Both factors, the androgens and the genes, are necessary for baldness to occur; a man without the genetic predisposition will not become bald regardless of his testosterone level. A woman with the genetic predisposition will usually not become bald unless she suffers from excess androgen production. Similarly, a castrated male with low testosterone levels will not become bald even if he has a genetic predisposition. Once testosterone levels rise during puberty, they reach a plateau and remain elevated until a man reaches his seventies, when they begin to decline. This event, called the male climacteric, may create some symptoms resembling those of female menopause. However, hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is not commonly used to treat these symp ­toms. One reason is that men in this age group are at increased risk for prostate cancer. Because testos ­terone has proliferative effects on the prostate, HRT might further increase the risk of prostate cancer. While testosterone does promote spermatogenesis, this testicular function is remarkably well preserved in men even after the climacteric. The Haploid Life Cycle in the Male As mentioned above, spermatogenesis begins with puberty and continues into the eighth decade of life. Spermatogenesis has three phases: sperma ­tocytogenesis, during which the primordial sper ­matogonia divide by mitosis and differentiate into spermatocytes; meiosis, resulting in four haploid gametes called spermatids, each with a quarter of the cytoplasm of the original spermatogonium (see Chapter 36); and spermiogenesis, during which the spermatids are nourished and physically reshaped by the surrounding Sertoli cells. The product of spermiogenesis is spermatozoa, or sperm (Figure 37.5). After spermiogenesis, the epididymis and repro ­ductive tract glands help prepare the sperm for fertilization. Spermatocytogenesis and Meiosis The evolving group of cells spanning from spermatogonia to sper ­matozoa is sometimes called the spermatogenic series. Not all spermatogonia enter into the sper ­matogenic series. If they did, they would be con ­sumed—as happens to the oogonia in the ovary, eventually leading to menopause. Instead, the testis csontinually replenishes its own supply of spermato ­gonia. As they undergo mitosis, some of the new ones are committed to the spermatogenic series, while some remain undifferentiated. The undifferen- tiated stem cells are called type A spermatogonia, and the differentiated spermatogonia committed to becom ­ing spermatocytes are called type B spermatogonia. Once this allocation of mitotic products into one group or another occurs, spermatocytogenesis con ­tinues as follows. Type A spermatogonia remain on the outside of the blood-testis barrier, while type B spermatogonia cross it, becoming enveloped by the cytoplasmic processes of the Sertoli cells. These type B spermatogonia differentiate further and enlarge to become primary spermatocytes. The primary sperma ­tocytes then enter meiosis, a process that takes around 3.5 weeks to complete, almost all of which is spent in prophase (when the newly replicated chro ­mosomes condense). Each primary spermatocyte di ­vides into two secondary spermatocytes, which in turn divide again into a total of four haploid spermatids. Each spermatid contains either an X chromosome or a Y chromosome. The male’s gamete thus decides the sex of his offspring. Spermiogenesis Spermiogenesis begins once the spermatids are created and delivered into the em ­brace of the amoeboid Sertoli cells (Figure 37.6). The spermatid elongates and reorganizes its nuclear and cytoplasmic contents into a spermatozoon with a dis ­tinct head and tail. The head consists of a condensed nucleus surrounded by a thin layer of cytoplasm. The rest of the retained cytoplasm and cell membrane is shifted toward the opposite end of the sperm, the tail. A large amount of the spermatid’s cytoplasm is shed into the surrounding Sertoli cell during spermiogene ­sis. As the transformed sperm is extruded into the seminiferous tubule lumen, the discarded cytoplasm remains embedded in the cytoplasm of the Sertoli cell, where it is ultimately phagocytized. Figure 37.6 Spermiogenesis The structure of sperm cells enables them to swim up the female reproductive tract and fertilize oocytes. The tail of a sperm contains a flagellum for motility. Originating from one of the centrioles of the sperm cells, the flagellum consists of a central skele ­ton of microtubules called the axoneme. The axoneme is arranged in the ancient 9 + 2 pattern characteristic of eukaryotic cilia and flagella across all kingdoms and phyla of life: 9 pairs of microtubules surrounding 2 central tubules, linked via a complex array of protein bridges. The sperm cell’s mitochondria aggregate along the proximal end of the flagellum and supply energy for movement to the flagellum. The flagellum enables the sperm to swim. The anterior two thirds of the head of the sperm cell is surrounded by a thick capsule known as the acrosome, formed from the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus contains numerous hydrolytic and proteolytic enzymes, similar to those found in lysosomes, and ultimately facilitates the sperm’s penetration of the egg for fertilization. There is also evidence to suggest a role for the acrosomal enzymes in penetrating the mucus of the female cervix. Epididymal Sperm Maturation and Storage After spermiogenesis is complete, the sperm pass out of the testis (through the rete testis) and into the epi ­didymis, where growth and differentiation continue. After the first 24 hours in the epididymis, the sperm acquire the potential for motility. However, the epithelial cells of the epididymis secrete inhibitory proteins that suppress this potential. Thus, the 120 million sperm produced each day in the seminiferous tubules are stored in the epididymis, as well as in the vas deferens and ampulla. The sperm can remain in these excretory genital ducts in a deeply suppressed and inactive state for over a month without losing their potential fertility. The epididymis also secretes a special nutrient fluid that is ultimately ejaculated with the sperm and is thought to mature the sperm. This fluid contains hormones, enzymes (such as glycosyltransferases and glycosidases), and nutrients that are essential to achieving fertilization. The precise function of many of these factors is not known, but enzymes like gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase are thought to serve as antioxidants defending against mutations in the sperm. Potentiation in the Ejaculate The accessory genital glands—the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands—also contribute to potentia ­tion. During ejaculation, their secretions dilute the epididymal inhibitory proteins, allowing the sperm’s motile potential to be realized. In addition, the glands make individual contributions to sperm preparation and support. The seminal vesicles secrete semen, a mucoid yellowish material containing nutrients and sperm-activating substances such as fructose, cit ­rate, inositol, prostaglandins, and fibrinogen. Carbo ­hydrates such as fructose provide a source of energy for the sperm mitochondria as they power the sperm’s flagellar movements. The prostaglandins are believed to aid the sperm by affecting the female gen ­ital tract—making the cervical mucus more receptive to the sperm, and dampening the peristaltic contrac ­tions of the uterus and fallopian tubes to prevent them from expellin g the sperm. The prostate gland secretes a thin, milky, and al ­kaline fluid during ejaculation that mixes with the contents of the vas deferens. The prostatic secretion contains calcium, zinc, and phosphate ions, citrate, acid phosphatase, and various clotting enzymes. The clotting enzymes react with the fibrinogen of the seminal fluid, forming a weak coagulum that glues the semen inside the vagina and facilitates the passage of sperm through the cervix in larger numbers. The al ­kalinity imparted to semen by the prostate counter ­acts vaginal acidity, which is a natural defense against microbial pathogens and which can kill sperm or impair sperm motility. By titrating the acid ­ity, the prostate ensures that the sperm can elude this antimicrobial defense. Capacitation in the Female Reproductive Tract Ejaculated sperm is not immediately capable of fertilizing the female oocyte. In the first few hours after ejaculation, the spermatozoa must undergo capacitation inside the female reproductive tract. This is the final step in preparation for fertilization. First, the fluids of the female reproductive tract wash away more of the inhibitory factors of the male geni ­tal fluid. The flagella of the sperm hence act more readily, producing the whiplash motion that is needed for the sperm to swim to the oocyte in the fallopian tube. Second, the cell membrane of the head of the sperm is modified in preparation for the ultimate acrosomal reaction and penetration of the oocyte. Capacitation is an incompletely understood phenomenon. Fertilization Once capacitated, the spermatozoa travel to the oocyte. There is an enormous rate of at ­trition among the hundreds of millions of ejaculated sperm, and at most a few hundred reach the oocyte. However, the female reproductive tract is simultane ­ously increasing receptivity to the male gametes (see Chapter 36). When the few hundred sperm reach the egg, they begin to try to penetrate the granulosa cells surrounding the secondary oocyte. The sperm’s acrosome contains hyaluronidase and proteolytic enzymes, which open this path. As the anterior mem ­brane of the acrosome reaches the zona pellucida (the glycoprotein coat surrounding the oocyte), it rapidly dissolves and releases the acrosomal enzymes. Within minutes, these enzymes open a pathway through the zona pellucida for the sperm cytoplasm to merge with the oocyte cytoplasm. From beginning to end, the process of fertilization takes about half an hour. Figure 37.7 Sexual response and changes in the penis. Penile Erection and Ejaculation The practice of internal fertilization, in which the male deposits gametes directly into the reproductive tract of the female, is at least 300 million years old. Early cartilaginous fishes probably were its innova ­tors. These elasmobranchs retained their concepti internally until the eggs could be waterproofed and thus protected from the osmotic stress of seawater. Eventually, almost all the higher vertebrates would practice internal fertilization for the sake of defending the next generation. For this reason, the male vertebrate possesses a special apparatus for penetrating the body of the female and delivering semen to an internal location. There are two physiologic events crucial to this in ­ternal delivery of semen: penile erection, which makes it possible for the penis to penetrate the vagina, bringing the urethral opening, or meatus, into close contact with the female cervix; and ejaculation, in which the semen is secreted into the male repro ­ductive ductal system, mixed with sperm, and then mechanically squirted out of the penis. Both of these events are initiated and controlled by the nervous system in connection with the subjective state of sexual arousal. Sexual Response in the Male William H. Masters and Virginia E. Johnson in 1966 described four phases of sexual response